Effective teachers Essay

I. The Power of an Effective Teacher and Why We Should Assess It This is the value of the teacher, who looks at a face and says there’s something behind that and I want to reach that person, I want to influence that person, I want to encourage that person, I want to enrich, I want to call out that person who is behind that face, behind that colour, behind that language, behind that tradition, behind that culture. I believe you can do it. I know what was done for me. The transformative power of an effective teacher is something almost all of us have experienced and understand on a personal level. If we were particularly fortunate, we had numerous exceptional teachers who made school an exciting and interesting place. Those teachers possessed a passion for the subjects that they taught and genuine care for the students with whom they worked. They inspired us to play with ideas, think deeply about the subject matter, take on more challenging work, and even pursue careers in a particular field of study. Some exceptional teachers achieve celebrity status, such as Jaime Escalante, the math teacher who inspired the film Stand and Deliver, but thousands of unsung heroes go unrecognized in their remarkable work with students on a daily basis. ? II. Qualities of an Effective teacher Think back to when you were in school. Who was your favourite teacher? Who was the teacher you dreaded having? Almost everyone will instantly be able to answer these two questions. We’ve all had terrific teachers and, unfortunately, most of us have had teachers that were not effective. So what qualities does an effective teacher have that an ineffective teacher does not? The answer is that it takes a perfect blend of several qualities to create a truly effective teacher who can have a lasting impact on virtually every student. In this article, we examine ten qualities that virtually every effective teacher will possess. a)An effective teacher loves to teach. The single most important quality that every teacher should possess is a love and passion for teaching young people. Unfortunately, there are teachers who do not love what they do. This  single factor can destroy a teacher’s effectiveness quicker than anything else. Teachers who do not enjoy their job cannot possibly be effective day in and day out. There are too many discouraging factors associated with teaching that is difficult enough on a teacher who absolutely loves what they do, much less on one who doesn’t have the drive, passion, or enthusiasm for it. On top of that, kids are smarter than what we give them credit for. They will spot a phony quicker than anyone and thus destroy any credibility that the teacher may have. b)An effective teacher demonstrates a caring attitude. Even teachers who love their job can struggle in this area, not because they don’t care, but because they get caught up so much in the day to day routine of teaching that they can forget that their students have lives outside of school. Taking the time to get to know a student on a personal level takes a lot of time and dedication. There is also a line that no teacher wants to cross where their relationship becomes too personal. Elite teachers know how to balance this without crossing that line and once a student believes the teacher truly cares for them, then there is no limit to what that student can achieve. c)An effective teacher can relate to his or her students. The best teachers work hard to figure out how to relate to each of their students. Common interest can be hard to find, but exceptional teachers will find a way to connect with their students even if they have to fake it. For instance, you may have a student who is a Lego fanatic. You can relate to that student if you do something as simple as ordering a Lego catalogue and then going through it and discussing it with that student. Even if you have no actual interest in Lego’s, the student will think you do and thus naturally create a connection. d)An effective teacher is willing to think outside the box. There is no one set cookie cutter way to teach. A cookie cutter approach would likely be boring for both teachers and students. What makes teaching so exciting is that kids learn differently, and we have to find and utilize different strategies and differentiated learning to reach every student. What works for one student, will not work for every student. Teachers have to be willing to be creative and adaptive in their lessons, thinking outside the box on a continual basis. If you try to teach every concept in the same manner, there will be students who miss out on key factors because they aren’t wired to learn that way. e)An effective teacher is an excellent communicator. To be the best possible teacher you must be an effective communicator. However, in this area you are not just limited to being a skilled communicator to your students although that is a must. You must also be a strong communicator with parents of your students as well as your faculty/staff team within in your building. If you have a difficulty communicating with any of these three groups, then you limit your overall effectiveness as a teacher. f)An effective teacher is proactive rather than reactive. This can be one of most difficult aspects for a teacher to conquer. Intense planning and organization can ultimately make your job all the more less difficult. Teachers who plan ahead, looking for aspects that they might have issues with, and proactively looking for solutions to solve those problems will have less stress on them, than those teachers who wait until a problem arises and then tries to address it. Being proactive does not replace being adaptive. No matter how well you plan, there will be surprises. However, being proactive can cut down on these surprises tremendously, thus making you more effective overall. g)An effective teacher strives to be better. A teacher who has grown complacent in what they do is the most ineffective kind of teacher. Any teacher who is not looking for new and better teaching strategies isn’t being an effective teacher. No matter how long you have taught, you should always want to grow as a teacher. Every year there is new research, new technology, and new educational tools that could make you a better teacher. Seek out professional development opportunities and try to apply something new to your class every year. h)An effective teacher uses a variety of media in their lessons. Like it or not we are in the 21st century, and this generation of students was born in the digital age. These students have been bombarded by technological advances unlike any other generation. They have embraced it, and if we as teachers do not, then we are falling behind. This is not to say that we should eliminate textbooks and worksheets completely, but effective teachers are not afraid to implement other forms of media within their lessons. i)An effective teacher challenges their students. The most effective teachers, are often the ones that many students think are the most difficult. This is because they challenge their students and push them harder than the average teacher does. These are the teachers who are often students’ least favourite teachers at the time, but then later on in life they are the ones that we all remember and want to thank, because of how well they prepared us for life after our time with them. Being an effective teacher does not mean you are easy. It means that you challenge every one of your students and maximize your time with them so that they learn more than they ever thought they could learn. j)An effective teacher understands the content that they teach and knows how to explain that content in a manner that their students understand. There are teachers who do not know the content well enough to effectively teach it. There are teachers who are truly experts on the content, but struggle to effectively explain it to their students. The highly effective teacher both understands the content and explains it on level. This can be a difficult skill to accomplish, but the teachers who can, maximize their effectiveness as a teacher. III. Effective teaching strategies Six keys to classroom Excel a) Interest and explanation – â€Å"When our interest is aroused in something, whether it is an academic subject or a hobby, we enjoy working hard at it. We come to feel that we can in some way own it and use it to make sense of the world around us. † (p. 98). Coupled with the need to establish the relevance of content, instructors need to craft explanations that enable students to understand the material. This involves knowing what students understand and then forging connections between what is known and what is new. b) Concern and respect for students and student learning – Rams den starts with the negative about which he is assertive and unequivocal. â€Å"Truly awful teaching in higher education is most often revealed by a sheer lack of interest in and compassion for students and student learning. It repeatedly displays the classic symptom of making a subject seem more demanding than it actually is. Some people may get pleasure from this kind of masquerade. They are teaching very badly if they do. Good teaching is nothing to do with making things hard. It is nothing to do with frightening students. It is everything to do with benevolence and humility; it always tries to help students feel that a subject can be mastered; it encourages them to try things out for themselves and succeed at something quickly. † (p. 98) c) Appropriate assessment and feedback – This principle involves using a variety of assessment techniques and allowing students to demonstrate their mastery of the material in different ways. It avoids those assessment methods that encourage students to memorize and regurgitate. It recognizes the power of feedback to motivate more effort to learn. d)Clear goals and intellectual challenge – Effective teachers set high standards for students. They also articulate clear goals. Students should know up front what they will learn and what they will be expected to do with what they know. e)Independence, control and active engagement – â€Å"Good teaching fosters [a] sense of student control over learning and interest in the subject matter. † (p. 100). Good teachers create learning tasks appropriate to the student’s level of understanding. They also recognize the uniqueness of individual learners and avoid the temptation to impose â€Å"mass production† standards that treat all learners as if they were exactly the same. â€Å"It is worth stressing that we know that students who experience teaching of the kind that permits control by the learner not only learn better, but that they enjoy learning more. † (p. 102. ) f)Learning from students – â€Å"Effective teaching refuses to take its effect on students for granted. It sees the relation between teaching and learning as problematic, uncertain and relative. Good teaching is open to change: it involves constantly trying to find out what the effects of instruction are on learning, and modifying the instruction in the light of the evidence collected. † ?

Tourettes Syndrome in Children

Tourette's syndrome, also called Tourette's disorder is named after the neurologist, Gilles de la Tourette. Sometimes it is referred to as GTS but more often it is simply called Tourette's or ‘TS’. It is an inherited neurological disorder marked by movement-based (motor) tics which are abrupt, repetitive, stereotyped, non-rhythmic movements, as well as vocal (verbal or phonic) tics which are involuntary sounds produced by moving air through the nose, mouth, or throat. Tourette's is defined as part of a spectrum of tic disorders, which includes transient and chronic tics.This disorder may appear in multiple family members, and often appears (co-morbid) with other behavioral disorders, in particular – â€Å"obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)† (Hawley 2008). People with this disorder have normal life expectancy and intelligence, but symptoms can lead to decrease in normal activities (Walkup, Mink & Hollenbec k 2006). Tourette’s syndrome, as described in the psychiatric diagnostic tool DSM-IV-TR criteria is â€Å"associated with distress or social or functional impairment† (Hawley 2008). Onset and Diagnosis.The most common first sign to alert people to visit the doctor for a possible presence of Tourette’s is a facial tic such as â€Å"rapidly blinking eyes or twitches of the mouth† (NTSA 2009). Unintended, involuntary sounds such as throat clearing, shrugging or tics of the limbs may be initial signs but in certain case, although rare, the symptoms become abruptly with multiple symptoms of movements and sounds. Chronic tic disorder is diagnosed with the presence of single or multiple tics, and the presence of motor or phonic tics (but not both) which is present for a year or more.On the other hand, Tourette's which falls under the category of above is diagnosed when there are multiple motor tics occurring at the same time with one phonic tic and is manifested for more than a year. As a general rule, simple motor tics like blinking are first noticed on the child at around 5-10 years old, while vocal tics start manifesting after 8 years old but before the child is 15 years old. Symptoms of the disorder can be seen in infancy but this is a rarity. As a rule, the symptoms may come and go and children show identifiable signs at round 7 years old (Hawley 2008), and before 18-21years old (Black 2007).Studies found the most onset was between 9-14 years of age (Leckman 2003, Black 2007). Another study showed that tics started below 18 years, but 5 relatives had an onset after the age of 21 years. Affected persons will â€Å"blink, jerk, grunt, clear their throats, swing their arms, grasp or clasp others, have obsessive-compulsive behaviors or use verbal expletives (coprolalia) uncontrollably† (Tabers 2001, 2207). In some cases, people suffering from Tourette’s can control the verbal expletives in public but they will express it vig orously once they are in private.Coprolalia, â€Å"the uncontrollable utterance of socially objectionable or taboo words or phrases† is the most popular symptom of Tourette's but it is not required for a diagnosis hence about 90% of patients afflicted with it only Tourette's does not have coprolalia. The most common, initially noticed motor tic is eye blinking and the vocal tic is repetitive throat clearing (Black 2007). The disorder often persists throughout the individual’s lifespan but severity peaks in adolescence and thereafter decreases to a point that it is almost not bothersome to the person.This average though can be very misleading because some form of fluctuation or recurrence have been documented although it is not severe. There have also been rare cases that reported a recurrence of tics that is bothersome enough to seek medical attention, and have had to maintain lifelong treatment due to progressively worsening of tic activity (Black 2007). Prevalence. T ourette's syndrome used to be known as a rare condition but it is now contended by doctors and psychologists that it may be more common but misdiagnosed because some cases are so mild that patients and their families discard it as being an oddity rather than Tourette’s.Most children with TS have mild, barely bothersome, non-disabling symptoms, and it is difficult to distinguish the signs of the disorder as opposed to a child acting out such as Mimicking others, blinking being viewed as tormenting someone who may have done so because they wear glasses, or by doing things that others would view as the child just trying to get attention, therefore, medical attention is not a thought to the parents of the child who is doing these things.In some patients the tics improve and disappear as they grow older; hence, they never seek medical attention. The estimated prevalence is 0. 7-4. 2% (Hawley 2008) based on children checked in public schools. Tourette’s is known to be famili al and its prevalence rate in first-degree relatives is 5-15% (about 10 times the prevalence rate in the general population). Chronic motor tics occurring, without vocal tics has also been documented as being common in relatives (Black 2007).In special education programs, 26% of students identified tics, as compared to 6% of students in mainstream classrooms led to identification of co-morbidity with having symptoms of TS included ADHD and OCD (Hawley 2008), impulse control disorders, anxiety and mood disorders, as well as difficulties with living and adaptation (Walkup, Mink & Hollenbeck 2006). It is estimated that 1 in 10 children per 1,000 have Tourette’s disorder, and as many as 1 per 100 people may have tic disorders.In children, male to female ratio varies from 2-10:1 (Hawley 2008), boys have an increased prevalence for chronic tics compared to girls in exhibiting 5:1 ratio, although some studies show between 2:1 and 10:1 ratios (Black 2007). If OCD data is included as a variant of Tourette’s, their quantities added to the total, the ratio between boys and girls become equal (Hawley 2008). Causes. Environmental factors may contribute to the cause but up to now exact causes of the disorder is still are not known.The clinical phenomenon are very similar across social classes, ethnicity and culture which suggests a genetic basis and the disorder has been reported globally (Hawley 2008). As children pass through adolescence, the tics decrease in severity and it is extremely rare for Tourette's to persist in adulthood. Whether the resolution is a compensation of the neuro system or a resolution of the underlying pathology is unclear (Hawley 2008).Adults who show signs of the disorder are likely to have shown symptoms since childhood, although these may have been so mild that they were generally unnoticed and undiagnosed. In the US though, most diagnosed patients being examined at research centers and affiliated with lay organizations are white. But this does not necessarily mean that Caucasians have a predisposition, it may merely be due to differences healthcare-seeking behaviors. A non-genetic cause may also exist and is still under research and investigation.Additional evidence is being gathered regarding the differences in severity between affected twins with the twin having experienced peri-natal complications experiencing increased symptom severity (Hyde 1992, Black 2007). Also garnering much attention is the theory that Tourette’s syndrome may be caused by an abnormal immune response to streptococcal infection. In several documented cases, tics began suddenly after a streptococcal infection. As a result of this the case definition for a â€Å"post-streptococcal autoimmune neuro-psychiatric disorders† came into being (Snider 2003, Black 2007).The difference between other movement disorders such as choreas, dystonias, and dyskinesias and that of Tourette's – these are â€Å"temporarily suppressib le, non-rhythmic and more often than not are preceded by a premonitory urge† (Black 2007). Just before an onset, an afflicted individual feels an urge that is similar to one felt before a sneeze or an itch that needs scratching. This is often pictured as a buildup of tension and energy which they are then able to consciously release so the sensation is relieved.It is further described as â€Å"something stuck in one's throat, a localized discomfort in the shoulders that leads to the need to clear one's throat or shrug the shoulders† (Hawley 2008). The actual tic is eventually felt as relieving this tension or sensation, similar to clearing the throat or shrugging the shoulder. This is how â€Å"premonitory sensory phenomena† or premonitory urges are described by sufferers. Medication and Treatment. Often, medication is unnecessary and a safe and effective medication for each and every case of tic is yet to be introduced.There have been medications as well as ther apies that help to reduce certain types of tics, but not cure it. In general, the medical management of Tourette’s is the treatment of coexisting behavior symptoms, change in diet, patient and family education. The patient and family are educated regarding how to effectively handle the manifestations of the disorder, and if an effective adaptation is made, they can avoid the use of medications. Medication is only considered when there is substantial interference with social and academic performance, as well as activities of daily living.The target is not for completely eliminating the symptoms but merely to alleviate the social embarrassment and discomfort so as to improve the social and academics life of the child. Various pharmacological agents are used to reduce the symptoms’ severity but it only treats the symptom and often the medications are have neurological effects whereas it has been argued that the disorder is a neurobiological condition. No curative or preve ntive treatments are atill available for this neurobiological or even biological aspect.There is a growing movement to go against medications because this being a chronic disorder, the goal should be long-term benefit rather than quick improvement at any cost. Families are also getting increasingly worried that the medications might have a detrimental effect in their children, that perhaps in the end, it ‘damages’ them rather than helping. It has been Resources for the child and families are available in several way which include educating students and school personnel regarding the nature the syndrome as well as improving the school environment will help the patient to avoid pharmacotherapy.Parents and families members of a child who has TS can turn to agencies such as the National Tourettes Association, counseling with the doctor’s, videos, and self help books. Reference List Black, Kevin J.. , Webb, Heather. Neurology: Pediatric Neurology: Tourette Syndrome an d Other Tic Disorders. Mar 30, 2007. Available from eMedicine Specialties at http://emedicine. medscape. com/article/1182258-overview Hawley, Jason S. , Darnall, Carl R. , Gray, Sharette K. Pediatrics: Developmental and Behavioral – Tourette Syndrome. 23 June 2008.Available from eMedicine Specialties at http://emedicine. medscape. com/article/289457-overview. National Tourette Syndrome Association, Inc. Tourette Syndrome: Frequently Asked Questions Website http://www. tsa-usa. org. Available at http://www. tsa-usa. org/Medical/Faqs. html. 2009. Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. Tourette’s Syndrome. (pp. 2207-2208). Philadephia, PA. F. A. Davis Company. 2001. Walkup, John T. , Mink, Jonathan W. , Hollenbeck, Peter J. Edition: Tourette Syndrome. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 2006.

Communication and Dialogue Essay

In this new era of globalisation wherein people from diverse culture and ethnicity have come together to work in an organisation, dialogue is indeed an important way of communication. Many researches have proved the fact that differences in culture may inculcate a difference in the thinking pattern or stem into differential analysis of a situation. In an organisation where values and growth are related  to each other, differences in opinion may lead to altercation and conflicts if not addressed well. Dialogue, a bidirectional flow of communication where emphasis is laid not only on saying but also on listening and understanding at the same time can be an useful tool in an organisation to resolve inter personal conflicts, conflicts within the department or conflicts between two different departments of the same organisation. The essay will highlight the importance of introduction of dialogue in a multicultural organisation and its use as a problem solving tool in multicultural organisation where cultural thinking act as an impediment among them. Also, it will review the role of dialogue in promoting organisational learning. Next it will explore some of the barriers in communication such as â€Å"Silo virus† and need for eliminations of those barriers, ending into a conclusion for the implication of dialogue in a multicultural organisation. Sequential Conversation or Unidirectional Flow of Communication versus Dialogic conversation A conversation is said to be sequential or unidirectional when there is a flow of information from the speaker to the listener (Eisenberg & Goodall, p. 27). This one way communication can be practically seen in classes where student completely rely on teachers lectures, also when managers or the instructor define the protocol of the work to the subordinates or receivers. In other words in a unidirectional or sequential communication listeners are passive and are uninvolved in constructing the ideas of the communication (Eisenberg & Goodall, p. 28)  . Traditionally communication between managers and employee were articulated as straightforward unidirectional flow of delivering management messages to employees and other constituencies (Tourish and Hargie 2009, p. ). However, dialogue provides equal opportunities to all who are involved in the communication. Everyone has the say to voice their opinion and give their feedback either in agreement or in opposition of the core matter. Dialogue in a working definition can be defined as a mindful conversation emphasising on equitable and empathetic transaction of opinions of the participant s to create new opportunities for working together to produce new and innovative ideas (Eisenberg & Goodall, p. 40-45) Hence dialogue is a balance between creativity and constraints (Eisenberg & Goodall ,p. 0). Dialogue demands its participants should be able to critically reflect themselves i. e, they should be open to the fact that the perceptions made by them may not always be accurate. â€Å"What we perceive is often based on our needs, our expectations, our projections, and, most of all, our culturally learned assumptions and categories of thought (Schein 1993,p. 33)†. Participants should be able to suspend the perceptions and feelings for some time to see the outcome of the dialogue (Schein 1993). By suspending the feelings the participants will allow the disagreements to fly off, hence will build mutual understanding and trust on each other. Higher the trust higher will be the effectiveness of the group. Participants will be open to voice their unfearful opinions, and will come up with more innovative and successful solutions. Dialogue as a problem solving tool in a multicultural organisation The definition of dialogue says that there should be equal sharing of perceptions, assumptions, thoughts and experiences to come to an radical conclusion (Schein 1993). Healthy communication connects the employee more strongly with the organisation by eliminating the sense of isolation and dissatisfaction. Employee who communicate regularly with their managers and co-employees have a higher sense of job engagement than those who are reluctant to voice their opinion. There is a direct relation between the healthy communication, participation of the employees in decision making and growth of the organisation. Dialogue does not only mean that you are heard, but it also signifies that your voice matters in the decisions of the company. It gives a sense of belonging to the employee and burns out stress and discomfort. The organisation with the higher number of contented employee will have higher productivity both in number and innovations. â€Å"The quality of relationships with co-workers is a crucial factor in determining levels of job satisfaction† (Tourish & Hargie 2009, p. 16). Job satisfaction cannot only be guaranteed by successful completion of a task, but it involves many other vital factors too. Today when it is impossible to find an uncultured organisation, learning about the intercultural ommunication is an indispensable necessity (Crossman et al 2011, p. 57). Culture plays an prominent role in structuring human behaviour, ideas and thought process (Wood2011). Differences of thinking may lead to ambiguity at the work place which may end into conflicts. According to Ting-Toomey, the greater the difference between two cultures, the more that conflicts will arise in areas such as historical griev ances, cultural world views and beliefs (Crossman et al 2011). Creating Coherence in Multicultural Organisation with dialogue Employees have different personal needs and hence different dimensions for the satisfaction. The organisation should know about the personnel needs of the employee and should work in a way to nurture good relationships among the employees (Tourish & Hargie 2009). Incorporating good communication practices such as regular group meetings, open house discussions or building new channels for communication sustains job engagement of the employee. Mangers should have expertise in intercultural communication skills to nurture an environment of tolerance to the ambiguity caused by incompatibility of cultural values and norms. As Brannen & Salk 1999, said working together to give fruitful result can only be achieved by compromising the ambiguity and confusion for quality issues. The practices like   an  open house group discussions  ,thought sharing and dialogues exchange with seniors and colleagues will help in bridging the gap of miscommunication and misunderstanding. Employees who have an access to information, organisation policies, new ventures and developments feel more secure and safe at work. Intercultural communications along with dialogue help in enhancing the process of organisational learning through group interaction. It helps in sharing of cultural ideas, values and beliefs. Cordial and happy relations at work place eliminate stress and burnout caused by work pressure and thus benefits the employee with good concentration and higher thinking. Socially balanced work culture  breed  employee with better insights and hence result in collaborative thinking and exemplary innovations. However in a real business world where emphasis is laid more towards the successful completion of the task, is it realistic to preach dialogue at every stage of decision making? Is it possible for an organisation to understand the needs of every employee? Will it be correct to say that it  is the responsibility of a manager to inoculate good intercultural communication where the employees are reluctant to shift their values and paradigm? Implementing dialogue can be a laborious process for a manager. It is the Manager who bears the responsibility of accomplishing the targets with in the given time frame. Dialogue can only be successful when employees are ready to take the responsibility to change themselves, else it will only result in wastage of time. Dialogue is easy to preach in a likeminded group sharing similar values but difficult to express with those who are reluctant to change. Say for instance it is easy to teach a budding employee about the virtues of good communication. However,  the same could not be expressed to those highly experienced or talented employees who are reluctant to adapt to new changes. Also, it is difficult to bring employees out of their comfort zone and to speak up expressing their true feelings. Dialogue- the core of organisational learning Dialogue lies at the core of organizational learning, for without dialogue, individuals and groups cannot effectively exchange ideas, nor can they develop shared understanding† (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008, pg 438). Argyris said that there are two different modes of learning, Model 1 and Model II, best be summarized as single or double loop learning. He mentioned in his writing â€Å"Teaching Smart people how to learn†, highly skilled professional are good at single loop learning because of their vast experiences and success gained in those experiences. However, Argyris argue that it is difficult for them to admit their mistake,  and hence they adopt a defensive attitude wherein they start blaming others for the failure. Defensive reasoning can block learning. Model I learning behavior persists throughout the organization resulting in to win/lose dynamics in which individual avoid confrontation (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). On contrast Model II which is based on open dialogue, self-reflection and double loop learning will help in bringing fundamental changes in organizational norms, priorities and behavior (Argyris and Schon1978). It is through dialogue that people share ideas with others. Integration of these ideas with others is only possible when a group has   a  common language and common thought process, which can only be built by dialogue(Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). Shared meaning can lead not only to the transference of knowledge, but also to the creation of new knowledge and understanding among participants (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). Finally, the process get embedded into the organization. This process is what Crossan et al. (1999) refer to as institutionalizing. Dialogue is therefore at the core of the socio-psychological processes of the model of organizational learning (Crossan et al. , 1999)† (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). Barriers to communication- Silos formation Advancement in technology and increase in complexity of organisation resulted in division of the organisation into different specialised departments or subunits. Employee in one department share same work language, technology and work terminology developing a subculture of its own. Different departments in an organisation work together to complete the task, failure of one may result in failure of others. Organisational effectiveness is therefore dependent on the valid communication across subculture boundaries† (Schein 1993,p. 41). Silo formation and Need to eliminate Silos Fragmentation of organisation into small departments may result in the formation of â€Å"silos† throughout the organisation. Individuals in silos share strong personnel bonds, common interests, abilities, work structure and relational bonds that differentiate them from others. Individuals in a silo interact more to each other than with the outside employees creating an atmosphere of alienation for those who are not part of the silo group. Silos act as a barrier to inter departmental flow of communication resulting in the  creation of isolation and hostility for others who are not  part of the group. Employees hesitate to co-operate with other departments thinking that the objective of their silo is different from that of other department. Interdepartmental competition may prevent the desire to transfer valuable information from one to other department. Communication breakdown can lead to errors and finger pointing, lack of responsibilities and hence failure of the task or the department itself What is the role of a good manager in an organisation full of silos? Managers should learn to trust his team members and also should show respect their peers. Mutual trust, respect for each other structure and values will help in dissolving silos. Senior should preach the essential values of their organisation and not that of a single department. Organisation based on Hierarchical pyramid structure An organisation based on principals to maintain and respect hierarchical structure, could not support dialogue. Hierarchy do not support the idea of cross questioning your boss or voicing against the idea of your manager, it may lead to serious repercussions for the employee. Time constrain Time is again a vital factor to be considered while promoting dialogue. Every project is designed to be accomplished with in a limited time frame. Listening to every voice of the department may lead to wastage of time. Managers should be able to recognise the right time to implement debate and discussion instead of dialogue. Breaching the comfort zone of employee Dialogue demands empathy and tolerance to other and is a time consuming process. In this fast pace society where human beings are already over engaged with priorities it is difficult to maintain patience to listen to others. Highly experienced employee find it difficult to listen to a new employee, they do not want to change their work protocol and hesitate to adapt to new changes. It is difficult to breach the comfort zone of over experienced employees and sometimes they find it insulting too. Defensive Behaviour and lack of trust Individuals may engage into defensive routines where they hesitate to open a dialogue with the seniors fearing that may lead to some serious problems with the co-employees or the manager himself. Also, colleagues working in an organisation may feel competition with their  colleague, and thus, employee consciously prevent flow of information to others creating a hostile environment for others. Lack of true Feedback Dialogue may be impeded by organisation norms such as the practice of only delivering good news to senior managers, and hiding distressing news. Individuals need  the  information to be able to detect and correct errors, but some organizational norms prevent such information from being discussed (Argyris and Schon, 1978). Baker et al. 2005: 425), for example, conclude that some ‘norms determine what can be said and not said, what and who is heard and not heard, who has  a  voice and who does not have  Ã‚  a  voice   who is in and who is out of the conversation’ (Mazustis & Slawinski 2008). These norms inhibit prevent knowledge from being shared openly across functional silos, divisions and levels. Conclusion Dialogue is no doubt an i mportant tool of communication to bring changes in an organisation and to promote  a  higher degree of organisational learning. Proper implementation of dialogue in an organisation will make employees more responsible to each other. It will also ensure trust, empathy, tolerance and engagement among the employees by creating a safe and secure work environment. Sharing of ideas, discussion about work and group thinking will inculcate high sense creativity and innovations. However, it is difficult to have an idealistic organisation working on the principals of dialogue. It  is a group endeavour and demands time and patience which are difficult to attain in this fast pace society. Human beings are primarily driven by their emotions and it is difficult to suspend feelings and emotions which is the demand to sustain a dialogue. Implications of dialogue are great but is difficult to practice. Books Crossman, J. , Bordia, S. & Mills, C. 2011 Business Communication : for the Global Age, McGraw-Hill, North Ryde, N. S. W. Eisenberg,M. , Goodall,H. L. & Trethewey,A. 2010, Organizational communication : balancing creativity and constraint, Boston : Bedford/St. Martin’s Cheney,G. (ed. ) 2011, Organizational Communication in an Age of Globalization : Issues, Reflection ;amp; Practices, 2nd edition, Long Grove, Ill. : Waveland Press Cottrell, S. 011, Critical thinking skills : developing effective analysis and argument, Houndmills, Hampshire, UK : Palgrave Macmillan Ferraro, G. P. ;amp; Briody, E. K. 2013, The cultural dimension of global business,7th ed. , Pearson, Boston, pp. 29-65. Hargie,O. ;amp; Tourish,D. (ed). 2009, Auditing organizational communication : a handbook of research, theory and practice ,Imprint East Sussex : New York, NY Walker, R. 2011, Strategic management communication for leader s, Mason, Ohio : South-Western Cengage Learning Wood,J. 2011, Communication mosaics : an introduction to the field of communication,Boston, MA : Wadsworth E journals Amy,H. 2008, ‘Leaders as facilitators of individual and organizational learning’ , Leadership ;amp; Organization Development Journal, vol. 29, no. 3, pp. 212-234 Argyris 1991, ‘Teaching smart people how to learn’, Harvard Business Review, vol. 69,no. 3,pp. 99-100 Argyris, C. and Schon, D. (1978), ‘Organizational Learning: A theory of action perspective’ Bloor,G. 1999, ‘Organisational culture: organisational learning and total quality management’ , Australian Health Review, Vol 22, no 3 Groysberg, B. ;amp; Slind, M. 2012, ‘Leadership is a conversation’, Harvard Business Review, 90(6):76-84. Mazutis,D. amp;Slawinski,N. 2008, ‘Leading organizational learning through authentic dialogue’ , Richard Ivey School of Business,The University of Western Ontario, Canada, Vol 39, pp. 437-456 Schein,E. 1993, ‘On dialogue, culture, and organizational learning’ ,Organisational Dynamics, Vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 40-51 Website Forbes, John Kotter, viewed on 26 March 2013, ;lt;http://www. forbes. com/sites/johnkotter/2011/05/03/breaking-down-silos/;gt;. Matthew Moore 2011, viewed 26 March 2013, ;lt;http://www. improvementandinnovation. com/features/article/breaking-down-organisational-silos-why-its-important-collaboration-quality-and-gro/;gt;.

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl - Essay Example One depicts the life of a slave boy and the other that of a girl. That Jacobs used a pseudonym is sometimes cited as a proof the account being a piece of fiction. I think it does not have to be so. It is an author’s right to use a pen name and it applies to Jacobs just as well. It is literally true that facts are often stranger than fiction and that explains why Incidents, for a long period after its publication in 1861, continued to arouse the skepticism that it was in all probability a white abolitionist’s fabricated work till Yellin of Pace University established the author’s authenticity (Diamond VIII). The cynicism understandably comes from those quarters where the members, owing as often to their community identity as to the gender identity, will never be able to identify with the traumatizing experience of what it means to be a slave – a female slave in particular; in the south, to be even more precise. The pain of having to choose between family ne eds and master’s decrees, for instance, cannot be appreciated just by going through the pages of a book. However, they were not the author’s target either. ... ery during the 17th and 18th centuries are two features that expose the darker side of the history, society, culture, politics and economics of a nation that is conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal (Elmore 232). In this context, Incidents assumes significance for its capacity to throw light on the fact that the cruelly exploitative nature of slavery is as horrible as the atrocities under colonialism, if not worse. It is an important literary work as well a source of crucial historical information about 19th century America that could be of essence to future generations in grasping what their forerunners lived through. It is a portrait of the society in which ‘citizen’ was a strange word to be used to refer to a colored man, as Jacobs observes on receiving the obituary notice of her uncle Phillip (Castronovo 158). For a slave, what images is the word freedom likely to conjure up? Being a woman can make more difference than w e think. Jacobs’ narrative is all about a relentless pursuit of individual freedom. But the way she envisages this freedom is beyond the wildest stretch of one’s imagination. The moment of freedom was not when she was able to take control of her life. Nor did it arrive when her employer had bought her freedom. Since self-definition and self-assertion are undeniably among the key themes of the protagonist in Incidents, it is not easy to resist the temptation to label it as feminist. But we find an interesting contradiction. From the feminist perspective, it is hard to think marriage can be synonymous with freedom whereas Jacobs equates freedom with marriage when she states: Reader, my story ends with freedom; not in the usual way, with marriage† (Jacobs 183). It is in sharp contrast with the

Persuasive paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Persuasive paper - Essay Example A number of researchers have suggested negative advertisement or campaign is the standard in all political scenes, moderated by the liveliness of a competition. Running negative advertisements is among the most utilized techniques used when attacking a competitor’s opinion, record or personality. There are two types of advertisements employed during negative political advertising: contrast and attack. This paper is about negative political advertising in the Dominican Republic and my views against the advertisements. Contrast advertisements are made up of details on the opponent and the candidate. The detail about the candidate is definite while details about the competitor is damaging. Contrast advertisements contrast and compare the candidate with the competitor combine the definite information about the candidate with the damaging information of the competitor. Because contrast advertisements are required to contain positive or definite information, contrast advertisements are perceived as less destructive to the political activities than attack advertisements. On the other hand, attack advertisements concentrate solely on the damaging features of the competitor. In addition, there is no positive information in an attack advertisement, whether it is about the competitor or candidate. ... Popular negative campaign styles include depicting a competitor as dishonest, a danger to the country or as soft on law breakers (Ansolabehere and Iyengar 27). One of the most popular negative political advertisements is claiming the opponent is using a negative political advertisement. The negative political advertisements also constitute dirty tricks. These constitute secretly running political advertisements that contain destructive information. This method does not require a lot of money and also segregates a candidate from backlash. Nonetheless, the leaked information should be solid enough to draw media and people’s attention. In contrast, if the truth is found out it can extensively destroy a campaign. Negative political advertisement also constitute giving the competitor’s unit untrue information wishing they will respond and humiliate themselves. Frequently, a political campaign will employ external groups to air negative political advertisement, for example, l obby groups. These may be presumed as emerging from a neutral area, and if the claims turn out to be untrue, the attacking participant will not face damages if the connections cannot be established. Negative political advertisements can be made by substitutes. These negative political advertisements can address issues like violence, fraud, or other social evils against a competitor (Calvert 15). I oppose negative political advertisements because while it prompts the source of support, it can estrange undecided and centrist voter form the political practice. This will radicalize politics and lessen voter attendance. The effect of negative political advertisements is a larger image prejudice of the contenders and larger attitude divergence. In

Research Question paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Question - Research Paper Example Lastly, experiments can be repeated for a number of times with different sample sizes until the expected outcome is achieved. Surveys on the other hand are not quite reliable since they will cost more while being repeated. Content analysis is best suited for social science studies that highly rely on research based on already existing literature. According to Babbie (2010), it is "the study of recorded human communications such as books, websites, paintings and laws†. Ethical considerations are also very essential while conducting a study. According to the APA (2002), five principles should be implemented by the researcher. These include: Participant should be informed of intellectual property (IP) rights. Researcher should follow informed – consent rules. Researcher should be professional. Researcher should practice confidentiality. Researcher should be capable of solving ethical dilemmas. Some of the limitations with regard to the experiment include human error. Sectio n 2: SAMPLING The participants who will be sampled include students from the different levels in the college. The number of participants will be controlled to 40 participants. These participants will be randomly selected – A random sampling technique will be used. The population of interest is individuals aged from 18 to 37 years. In addition to that, there will be other secondary sources of information that will be used so as to support the evidence being studied. That is, the secondary resources will act as additional literature entries. It should be noted that having a controlled sample size is key in every study. This is in a bid to prevent the experiment from being extremely tedious, uncontrolled as well as preventing the use to too many resources. As a result, the sample size that has been selected will perfectly represent the targeted population. Limitations in the sample include: Type 2 errors, lack of statistical power, distribution inequalities and lack of significa nce. Section 3: KEY VARIABLES In this hypothesis testing, the variables under study include the age of the participants and the effect of instructor humour in student learning. The age of the participants: It is without doubt that humour has its effect on different age groups differently. For example younger people may find humour important in student learning as compared to elder people. As a result, this is a variable that is very crucial in this testing. Effect of instructor humour: This is another variable that is important in this study. It will be used to determine which age group fancies humour in the learning environment. Independent variable: An independent variable is that which can be changed in a study. Largely, any experiment must have an independent variable. With regard to the hypothesis being tested, the independent variable is the impact of humour in student learning. As a result, the humour could be projected by the instructor or not. Dependent variable: This is a variable that solemnly depends on the independent variable. As a result, these variables act as functions of the independent variable. With regard to the hypothesis being tested, the dependent variable is the age of the participants. In the experiment, the hypothesis will be: â€Å"The effects of instructor humour on student learning† Section 4: ANALYSIS The level of measurement is a representation of the different methods in which numbers can be used in an experiment. There are four major levels of

National Culture and Financial Systems Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

National Culture and Financial Systems - Essay Example Based on the findings of this two-part study, the writer will draw conclusions and make inferences on the subjects. This will include an examination of important elements and aspects of culture and its consequences on the national, firm and individual levels and specific implications for the two countries in the quest. â€Å"Culture is the full range of learned human behavior patterns† (Taylor, 2009: 85). Culture refers to the patterns that are generally accepted in a given community. These behavioral patterns dictate what is right and what is wrong in the community. Hence, culture defines a framework of what is acceptable and what is not acceptable. Another definition put forward by the Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition states that â€Å"culture is a shared pattern of behaviors, interactions, cognitive constructs and affective understanding that are learned through a process of socialization† (2012). This means that culture relates to a number of preferences and patterns that are common in a community because the social structures of the community have accepted them and they transmit them to other people. Culture clearly defines the social system of a community and sets a clear framework for what is right and what is wrong. Organizations take inputs from the environment, process them into outputs which they offer to customers. Customers are products of the society. Hence, customers are influenced by the norms, values, and culture of the society. Due to this, cultural analysis is an important aspect of business success. Thus, a business must undertake an analysis of culture in order to succeed. It can be demonstrated on the national, firm and individual level.

Introdction to sociology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Introdction to sociology - Essay Example Both group of people experience life is continually changing and both find it difficult to control, but they differ on the perspectives. Strategies should be formulated as it gives some sort of control and forward planning in life but such households are few. Such people attempt to ‘make out’ while others are just ‘getting by’. Every individual and household has to encounter contingencies and both planner and non-planners have to cope with it. The ones who plan find it easier to cope with changed situations while the non-planners have to struggle. Most people just try to ‘get by’ which is not advisable. Most of the people have to experience both the situations in their lives but ultimately some sort of forward planning does make life easier. In the educational field it operates via the process of individualization or choice and through the characteristics of the cultural and social capital. A research on the different market forces in education revealed that the teachers, parents and managers have different priorities, values and skills (Gerwitz, Ball & Bowe). These govern the local markets. The authors contend that the goods should be distributed according to merit or those families deserve it that are motivated to take advantage of the policy of open enrolment. The other definition is need-based which implies that resources should go to those in need of it and those who have fewer resources in the home and community to meet educational needs. The main findings of the study suggest that the schools are keen to meet the perceived demands of the parents and the market is middle-class oriented. Parental choice of school is based on race and class. They also have the capacity to exploit the market to their children’s advantage. Since schools are funded on the basis of the number of students. Locality holds no importance. The skilled and

History of Health and Human Services Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

History of Health and Human Services - Essay Example The development of human services is thus affected by the beliefs and values held by the society over time. Since beliefs and values keep changing, the human services field develops accordingly.3 The current health and human services can thus be viewed as representing the current attitudes, beliefs, and values of the contemporary American society. There are also questions as to which group of people and the types of problems should be helped, to what extent and how. Many people and events have also shaped the development and direction of the field. This paper will try to outline the history of Heath and Human Services field from the start of US history up until the year 1880. It will try to explain the main pioneers of this field among other issues such as the main Acts. However, it will first give a brief history of the era before US independence in order to understand the development of the field better and its foundation. Pre-independence Era The US human services are based on the Elizabethan poor laws of 1601 of England. According to Woodside and McClam this law guided the social welfare practices in England and US for the next 350 years by specifying who was to provide what services to those in need.4 Before inception of this law, the early communities used to believe that diseases were caused by supernatural beings such as demons. The work of medicine men was thus to exorcise the evil spirits. As society progressed, so did their beliefs and development of human services field. The Hippocrates were more civilized began to attribute diseases and disabilities to brain malfunction as opposed to demons. Diseases were thus treatable with use of exercise, vegetable diets and change of lifestyle.5 The renaissance era marked the beginning of formal state intervention in provision of social services. The state established the poor laws which segregated people into three categories. The poor were placed in shelters and some were sent to poorhouse or almshouse. These houses were under poor conditions and lacked essential services; they were congested, food was in short supply not forgetting the stigma associated with such houses. Most people were against helping the poor and saw it as a means of promoting laziness. The situation was worsened by the industrial revolution. There was growth of urban centers due to introduction of the factory system. This led to mass migration of people from rural to urban areas hence an increase in urban poor and prompting the need for public institutions to cater for them.6 The new beliefs during this period were centered on the protestant work ethic. This was the belief that hard work portrays virtuousness and deserves to be rewarded while laziness deserved punishment.7 As such, wealth was considered as the reward for hard work and poverty as punishment from God. This philosophy was neither considerate of the poor in society nor those with disabilities or could not find a job. The poor were not to be helped but to be encouraged to work hard so as to earn a living and improve their well-being. The introduction of the less eligibility concept was geared towards encouraging people to work. It maintained that assistance given was to be lower than the lowest wage paid to any working person.8

Summarizing Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Summarizing - Article Example The article also deals with the idea of government subsidies in funding research projects and comes up with the finding that government subsidies often harm the poor and the middle classes more than they help them. The practice of providing subsidies is more often than not, according to the writer, justified using the rhetoric of unemployment and the need to provide more work to American companies. This is not however, what the character Dave argues for. He looks at the negligible difference that a fall in demand in the American market would create in the world market and puts into perspective the influence that tariffs imposed by the government could have on producing more jobs. He looks at the problems with introducing a tariff against foreign-produced goods as Ed says (Protection). The idea of free trade that Dave argues for is more often than not refuted by proponents of government intervention citing the reason of ‘fair trade’. This implies the ability of firms with in a country to be protected against the onslaught of foreign companies that may have more money and power (Edge). However, providing subsidies may not push down the price of goods in the local economy. They would not benefit the local consumer. Apart from this, there is also no data available to substantiate the argument that local businesses would be at an advantage as their cost of production may still be higher than that of the foreign company. To increase the tariff to an extent where the foreign firms would not be able to compete would take jobs away from the American market rather than boost the economy. The difference in price would be transferred on to the local consumers. Dave also warns about the possibility of other countries imposing equally large taxes on American firms. This would lead to greater problems in the long run for the American economy and its people. There is also the possibility of there being lobbies that affect the government’s decisions. Much of the tariffs that are imposed on products are based on the political power and influence that local firms have rather than the economic wisdom of the decision. The people who suffer amidst all of this are the taxpayers. The idea of free trade involves the assumption that what is required by a particular consumer would be provided by the market according to the laws of demand and supply (Rothbard â€Å"Free Market†). The idea of free trade is then in direct conflict with the ideas of protectionism which let certain elements have an advantage based on the support of the government. This is unsustainable in a free market in a globalized setup as it would lead to the kind of problems that are detailed above. The existence of two systems in conflict with each other can only prove to be disastrous in the long run. The adverse impact of such a policy can be seen in the economic slump that is experienced by Japan at this point of time (Rothbard â€Å"Protectionism and the Destruction of Prosperity†). The policies that are created according to such ideologies more often than not end up harming large sections of the taxpaying population in the country. The article illustrates the problems with the kind of funding that is provided by the government to private concerns. The essay suggests that they end up benefitting certain individuals while causing greater harm to the middle classes. The money that they pay is used for such funding; however, the benefits are reaped by the richest sections of

International Marketing Environment Research Paper

International Marketing Environment - Research Paper Example Evidently, all these constraints affect the flexibility of doing international trade. A country while exporting its domestic products is benefited by the foreign exchange income as well as by the new employment opportunities. On the other hand, while importing goods from other countries, a ‘consumer surplus’ is being created when the consumers are benefited by the availability of better products at a lesser price. Utilizing the both benefits, government has the ethical responsibility to facilitate international trade to those who are willing to invest in the international markets. However, when considerations about the local market come to the surface, the introduction of the international trade becomes a job that is easier said than done. To illustrate, the victims of the international trade are the local businesses that are not able to compete with foreign products. In such situation, the role of the government becomes more critical on taking appropriate actions which will not badly affect both the groups. The foremost five levels of economic integration are Free trade area, Customs union, Common market, Economic union, and Political union. As the international trade is widening and more countries are ready and willing to invest in it, the level of economic integration has to be refurnished between various groups of nations. It is not practicable to think that all countries would follow the precise pattern of economic integration, but we can expect for the development of basic arrangements such as lowering and abolishing the hurdles to trade and creating an economical environment. New economic integration techniques must be brought up to cope up with the new international trade needs. As Holden (2003) points out, a most mentioned example for this is the European Union, which has evolved from a collection of autarkical nations to develop into a completely integrated economic unit. At the outbreak of globalization, economic integration had been one of the forces behind the international trade making. We can sort that fact out from the performance of the multinational organizations that have developed into the most profitable business concerns in the recent years. An organization must be aware of the culture and language of the country where it is going to make its huge investment. With the successful take off, international business will rely more towards the economic integration for its future achievements on the global scale. II. Economical and Cultural elements of International Marketing Environment Economic, cultural, political, technological, social, and legal elements are most important for the international marketing environment (The legal, political/ trade environment). Many write down the importance of economic element as, â€Å"With money all things are possible, without money many things are impossible†. The economic element plays a vital role in the international marketing environment. A technologically adv anced industrial product requires a technologically advanced buyer. In the same way, luxury products are not meant to be sold to low-income consumers. Therefore, international market for high-priced luxury items of food, furniture and durable products need large support of consumers who have the capacity to make large purchase from these hypermarkets. However, the global economic growth today has been at pace comparing to that of the previous year.

Jesus and Caravaggio Essay Example for Free

Jesus and Caravaggio Essay Caravaggio (1573-1610) Originally named Michelangelo Merisi, Caravaggio was born on September 28, 1573 in the Lombardy hill town of Caravaggio near Milan, which he is named after. He was born to relatively privileged parents who were victims of an epidemic and he became an orphan at the age of eleven. When Caravaggio was only 13 years old his family decided he would devote his life to painting. Caravaggio began as an apprenticed in 1584 to Simon Peterzano, a Milanese painter in oils and fresco. His earliest years in Rome, from-1588 were very difficult for Caravaggio. He was employed for a while in the workshop of Mannerist painter Giuseppe Cesari, also known as the Cavaliere dArpino as a fruit and flowers specialist, the only Caravaggios still life work known without figures is a Basket of Fruit (1597 Pinacoteca Ambrosiana, Milan) the facts about this piece are not really clear although it is possible the painting was made as a trial piece, since the background was added later (the piece is now lost). Basket of Fruit (1597)- In 1592, Caravaggio arrived in Rome at the age of 21. His first five years in Rome were the hardest period for Caravaggio. He had no money and lived a very modest life style because he couldn’t find a suitable work place, therefore he moved from one workshop to another frustrated from working as an assistant to painters who had much smaller talent than his own. He earned his living mostly from uncreative routine work and never stayed more than a few months at each studio. Finally in 1595, he decided to set out on his own and began to sell his pictures through a dealer, Maestro Valentino, who brought Caravaggios work to the attention of Cardinal Francesco Del Monte, a bishop of great influence in the Vatican. Caravaggio soon came under the protection of Del Monte and was invited to receive a place to live, and a pension in the house of the cardinal. Despite spiritual and material deficiency, Caravaggio had painted approximately 40 paintings for Francesco Del Monte. The subjects of this period are mostly adolescent boys, such as the above paintings: Boy with a Fruit Basket (1593; Borghese Gallery, Rome). The boy with a fruit basket has similarities with another painting the- Fruit seller by the Lombard painter Vincenzo Campi, painted about 1580, nevertheless, Caravaggio is not following his footsteps and using innovative drawing techniques. Differently from Vincenzo Campis drawing posing a young woman in the center of the piece, Caravaggio preferred a teenage boy which was his most common theme of drawing at the time. Also his subject is brought almost to the front of the picture, so that the boy seems to offer himself as well as the fruit to the observers. There is a sign of uncertainty in the way that the boys long neck raises out of his shoulders edge. Caravaggios incredible techniques of light and shadow are already seen in his early work. Against a near-blank ground, attention is focused on the right side of the boys upper body, his right arm and the fruit basket, displaying very rich variety of fruits. The Young Bacchus (1593; Uffizi Gallery, Florence). Caravaggios Bacchus no longer seems like an ancient god, or the Olympian vision of the High Renaissance. Instead, Caravaggio paints a rather vulgar and soft yang boy, who turns his chubby face towards the viewer and offers wine from a large glass held by his small thin fingers. This is not Bacchus himself, but some perfectly ordinary individual dressed up as Bacchus, who looks at the viewers rather exhaustedly. It appears that Caravaggio used real people for his paintings even in his early work. The Music Party (Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York). The two figures seen in the front of the piece are the main characters of the composition. They are shown in an oppositional structure, and only one of them is fully shown. The figure of the instrument player and the corresponding figure that we see from behind. The face between these two is Caravaggios; the figure on the left is taken from an earlier composition (Young Peeling a Pear). Caravaggios usage of a narrow range of earth colors which was his signature method of painting is shown from his earliest work as well as in his most famous ones. Also his amazing use of details, he describes every part of the figures anatomy and he always creates movement in his paintings. These early pictures show an innovative, direct, and empirical approach; they were painted directly from life and show almost no usage of the academic method of painting which was used in Rome at the time.

Language And Communication Development

Language And Communication Development Initially, this essay illustrates the importance of play by describing its categories. Play theories are briefly demonstrated and divided into classical and contemporary ones. Thereafter, it mentions the characteristics of language through the theories of two highly respected scientists, Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, in order to understand the correlation between language and play development. It also illustrates the existence of nine basic communication skills and why non-verbal and verbal communication is so important. Moreover, this essay analyzes research which explains the direct relation between play, language and communication. Through detailed references, the idea that the role of play is salient in a childs development is supported. Next it illustrates the importance of finger, mime and rhyme play to explain that even the most common games possess a significant role in language and communication development. Last but not least, it analyzes how play reinforces the literacy de velopment and finally demonstrates the opinion of the writer. The Importance of Play Arguably, play is a vital part of childrens development which has many implications in their lives. Despite the difficulty of referring to a commonly accepted definition, play is a vital part of the developing child (Sheridan Howard Aldelson, 2011). It is a fundamental action which occurs throughout childrens lives and is divided into two categories, free play and structured play. To be exact, free play is an action where the child can choose the rules and the form of play, without the participation and the engagement of an adult. Hence, the child becomes the leader of play (Tassoni Hucker, 2000). Moreover, many researchers have claimed that free play offers more educational opportunities to children. Whereas structured play is defined as an action which is directed by adults and limits childrens learning potentials. Adults are protagonists and possess a primary role in this type of play. For this reason, Thomas, Howard and Miles proved by a study they conducted, that free play, in other words playful mode play, is capable of fostering childrens ability to learn. They state that through this mode childrens communication is benefited, because playfulness creates the ability to enhance various types of behaviors. As a result, educational settings use the playful method to foster childrens language and communication development (McInnes Howard Miles Crowley, 2009). It is of importance to mention that there are play theories which are separated into two categories, classical and modern theories of play. In particular, classical theories consist of the Surplus Energy Theory, Recreational or Relaxation Theory, Pre-exercise Theory and the Recapitulation Theory of play (Sheridan Howard Aldelson, 2011 Stagnitti, 2004 Tassoni Hucker, 2000). Modern theories concluded by the Arousal Modulation Theories of Play, the Psychodynamic Theories of Play, the Cognitive Developmental Theories of Play and the Sociocultural theories of Play. The last category is divided into two sub-categories which are the Play as Socialization and the Metacommunicative Theory (Stagnitti, 2004). Moreover, there are five types of play, which are cited as physical play, play with objects, symbolic play, socio-dramatic/pretence play and games with rules (Whitebread, 2012). The above five types of play help children to expand their abilities not only in the language and communication domain, but also in the physical, cognitive, social and emotional domain (Sheridan Howard Aldelson, 2011). According to the constant evolution of language and communication, play and its benefits in this domain must be analyzed in depth, in order to evaluate childrens developmental potentials through play. Language and Communication Language is a strong communication tool (Moyles, 1989) which fosters childrens abilities. Through language we can live the past again, evaluate the future and use this vital tool when we face complex situations (Crain, 2000). Also, many developmental theorists have tried to explain, how children adopt primal abilities as they grow up and some of them, have given special emphasis to the language and communication development and how it is related to play. They have evaluated childrens development from birth to adulthood. Vygotsky, who was characterized as the Mozart of Psychology (Gray MacBlain, 2012, p.85), claimed in his social constructivism theory, that language is the cultural tool which facilitates the processes of thinking and learning. It was his firm belief that children must comprehend language, in order to interact in the society. Hence, according to Vygotsky, play and language are interrelated (Moyles, 2005). Due to the fact that through play children master communication skills, they interpret the use of objects and imitate the attitudes and the habits of adults (Gray MacBlain, 2012). In addition, he stated that children gain knowledge when they participate in social communication and consequently, they adopt new meanings. Therefore, according to Vygotsky, children act in the zone of proximal development (Whitebread, 1996), which means that every child has limited potential when accomplishing an activity but he can expand his skills with suitable help (Lindon, 2001). However, another respected scientist Piaget did not lay emphasis, as Vygotsky did, on the importance of language during childrens development. Piaget stated that language mechanism is used by the young child only to express some basic satisfactions and not to foster more complex functions such as thought and logic (Gray MacBlain, 2012). Furthermore, Piagets opinions did not promote childrens abilities; instead he undervalued them, by applying activities that were too complex for children competence (Whitebread, 1996). On the contrary, some scientists argue that childrens thought, starts to function logically as they learn how to use language. This happens because language skills are difficult for children to assimilate, but when this gradually occurs, logic develops (Crain, 2000). Nevertheless, Piaget did not support the above notion by mentioning that logic derives from actions (Gray MacBlain, 2012). On the grounds that language is an integral part of communication, it is important to pinpoint some of the skills that children develop in this domain. In other words there are nine basic communication skills. Initially, children learn to request reinforcement, to request assistance, to accept and reject offers. Furthermore, they respond to the order wait or no, they respond to directions, follow a schedule and finally they are able to make a transition from one place to another (Frost Bondy, 2002). For instance, when children pretend to be a patient in a hospital, they learn when they have to wait their turn in order to be examined by the doctor and they give orders such as wait, stay, come. Communication is a complex function. Before the emergence of words, children can communicate adequately before adopting language production and language comprehension (Sheridan Sharma Cockerill, 2008). The above aspect describes the non-verbal communication type which is very important. Newborn babies communicate non-verbally to express their needs. Facial expressions, body language, proto-sounds and perception of feelings are the attributes of non-verbal communication (Whitehead, 1999). Hence, adults start to communicate with children initially non-verbally and eventually verbally. Research proves that conversation between children and adults which contains a large number of open questions is essential because children have the opportunity to respond to spoken language. In other words, when children feel that they are active participants in an adult-child conversation, they feel playful which is salient for the development of language (Howard McInnes, forthcoming). Fostering Language and Communication Skills through Play To begin with, studies have proved that there is a strong connection between language and play. A research which was conducted in Japan in 1989, showed remarkable signs that play and language are strongly correlated. Specifically, the four children who participated in this research were observed twenty times each in a free play mode, where the adults had a passive role. The intention of the study was to analyze early language development and play development (Ogura, 1991). Thus, six features of language were illustrated in order to analyze the findings better. These were the emergence of first words, naming words, vocabulary spurts, word-chains, nonproductive two word utterances and the emergence of productive two-word utterances (Ogura, 1991 p.278). Furthermore, this research divided play into thirteen subcategories. The findings showed that children managed to obtain the ability of naming words because they had been involved in preverbal communication. Also, children began to name objects when the conventional naming act category of play appeared. Furthermore, words and sounds have a strong relationship with each other. It was proved that children through the functional relational manipulation play and the container relational manipulation play, managed to adopt the above important function and the production of first words as well. Moreover, it was stated that early language development is related to subsitutional play. Also, this study illustrated that the environment plays a major role in the development of symbolic play. As a result, language is influenced by social interaction. Moreover, childrens vocabulary spurts appeared in subsitutional play. Word-chains appeared when pretend doll play, subsitutional play and pretend other play took place during the observations. In addition, the fifth language category appeared with planned play and combinatorial symbolic play. The last language category was related to planned play (Ogura, 1991). Undoubtedly, this p aper shows the unique interrelation between language development and play. Researchers evaluated the connection between symbolic play with play materials and symbolic play with play situation. Firstly, during childrens play with unstructured play materials, they found that children who are at the age of three to four could imitate the activities of adults. However, in structured play children were able not only to imitate but also to engage slightly in role play. At the age of four to five childrens unstructured play evolved and they started to express questions and ideas with the mediate tool of spoken language. On the contrary, in structured play they used more conversation. This study showed that in the first type of play children at the age of five to six used their body language and voice to clarify a situation. Also, both in structured and unstructured play, children preferred to play in groups of their own gender. We can notice that structured materials are better for younger children because they do not put limitations on their ideas while playing. In other words, younger children need to enhance their expressive ideas by playing with structured play materials to be adequately prepared for school (Umek Musek, 2001). At the same time, symbolic play related to play situation showed that phonetic imitation (Umek Musek, 2001, p.61) is promoted and that at the age of four children use social speech. Moreover, they use social markers, in order to speak like adults (Ervin-Tripp, 1973). Later, at the age of five children use metacommunication in their play. Metacommunication is very important because children can discuss play. They stop in order to negotiate the next step of the game. Indeed, it promotes dialogue among peers. It is very important because it can be used as scaffolding to childrens language development (Andersen, 2005). According to this study, metacommunication levels are higher when children are older. Moreover, the same study proposes that it is better and more helpful for children to play in mixed groups rather than in groups with members of their own age. Hence, children can play in the zone of proximal development. Therefore, they foster their language and communication skills. Aga in, this study shows us that play which is dependent on materials or situation is correlated with language development. Apart from the above studies there are play activities which enhance language and communication skills. For instance, children are benefited by mime because they develop an alternative thought. This occurs by observing various children demonstrating their thoughts. Consequently, they can think of more complex situations and they are able to express their ideas with enriched vocabulary. Furthermore, finger play helps children with the counting process (Woodard Milch, 2012). Moreover, rhymes can provide many opportunities for children to enhance their language skills. According to a study, rhyme awareness helps children to recognize phonemes which are very important for reading skills. The sensitivity to rhyme enables children to group words together with the same spelling features (Bryant MacLean Bradley Crossland, 1990). Play Fosters Literacy Vygotsky evaluated the role of make-believe play in childrens development and he argued that literacy is enhanced by play. He describes that children initially act spontaneously when they play, and the process of learning happens with their will. On the contrary, when children go to school they must change their behaviors to a planned and a structured environment. Vygotsky stated that make-believe play is the important mediate tool for children to adopt written language and to succeed in school (Roskos Christie, 2007). Furthermore, drawing is considered to be a necessary play for children. Research has shown that children can expand their graphic vocabularies and they can represent their meanings, which means that through drawing communication is enhanced (Whitebread, 2012). Besides, Vygotskys research has shown that drawings in early childhood are connected with the ability of writing and spoken language, which means that the meaning of childrens drawings is not only the drawing as a picture but the drawing as an expressive tool of their thoughts (Roskos Christie, 2007). In conclusion, it is worth mentioning, that in childrens play the repetition and the renaming of play materials fosters the ability of the direct relation between words and the objects they portray. The above function is called metalinguistic awareness and it has been proved that it is necessary for written language (Roskos Christie, 2007 p.193). Conclusions It is clear, therefore, that the above essay illustrates the direct correlation between play, language and communication. Despite the fact that it has been proved that play fosters the learning process, there are still opponents of this view, who state that formal learning strategies are better than playful approaches. However, this essay contradicts the notion of formal learning methods by supporting the theory, that play does enhance language and communication by citing adequate bibliography to prove it. Children can reach high standards in the learning process of language because during play they are motivated and are not possessed by the feeling of fear (McInnes et al., 2009). To sum up, due to the fact that play has been decreased in school settings, it is salient to ensure that play must exist in preschool and in the first school years of a child, because a child is always above his average age, above his daily behavior; in play it is as though he were a head taller than himself (Roskos Christie, 2007, p.199).

Theories of the Totemism Belief System

Theories of the Totemism Belief System Anthropology is crucial for understanding the contemporary world. Anthropology offers both things to think about and things to think with. Anthropologists would be interested in Totemism because they study people throughout the world, investigating their history, behaviour, how they adapt to different environments, communicate and socialise with each other, along with examining the biological characteristics that make us human, our physiology, genetic make-up, nutritional history and evolution along with social features like language, culture, politics, family and religion. Totemism is a belief system where humans are believed to have kinship or a mystical relationship with a spirit-being such as an animal or plant. The totem is thought to interact with a given kin group or individual and serve as their emblem or symbol. Totemism has been described as a cluster of traits in religious and in the social organisation of populates (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2013). Totemism originates in populations whose traditional economies relied on hunting, gathering and mixed farming with the emphasis on rearing cattle. Totemism is a multifaceted set of ideas and ways of behaviour built on a worldview drawn from nature. There are ideological, mystical, emotional, reverential, genealogical relationships of social groups or specific persons with animal or natural objects, the totem. There is a difference between group and individual Totemism although they share a few basic characteristics; they happen with different emphasis and in specific forms. Generally societ ies have special names and emblems to relate to the totem, and those it sponsors engage in partial identification with the totem or symbolic integration to it. Usually, there is a taboo against people killing, eating, or touching the totem. Individual Totemism is articulated in an intimate relationship of friendship, respect and protection between a person and a particular species of animal; the natural object can grant special power to its owner. However, this relationship, in the case of the individual totem, begins and ends with the individual man, and is not, like the clan totem, transmitted by inheritance. An individual totem in America is: Usually the first animal of which a youth dreams during the long and generally solitary fasts which American Indians observe at puberty. He kills the animal or bird of which he dreams, and henceforward wears its skin or feathers, or sonic part of them, as an amulet, especially on the war-path and in hunting (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013) Individual totems among the Slave, Hare and Dogrib Indians will always be a carnivorous animal, and must not be skinned, eaten or killed. A man will always carry a photograph of his totem; if they are unsuccessful in a chase he will smoke to it and make a speech. Group Totemism is the most widespread belief system. The totem is often an animal or plant that is respected by all members of the social group, because of a mystical or ritual relationship between the group, the spirit which embodies the totem represents the bond of unity within the tribe or clan. The group believe they are descended from a totem ancestor or that they and the totem are brothers. The totem can be viewed a group symbol and the protector of all members of the group. The animal or plant totem is the object of a taboo, just as the individual totem it is forbidden to kill or eat the sacred animal. It is possible for the totem symbol to be tattooed on the body, engraved on weapons or carved on totem poles. Males and females in some cultures have their own totem; however, typically Totemism is connected with clans or blood relatives. Marriage between members of the same totemic clan is totally forbidden. Group Totemism is usually associated with people in Africa, India, Oce ania, North America and some parts of South America. The first theory on Totemism was conducted by McLennan (1869) who searched for the origins of totemism, he belied that: The ancient nations came, in prehistoric times, through the totem stage, having animals and plants, and the heavenly bodies conceived as animals, for gods before the anthropomorphic gods appeared (LÃ ©vi-Strauss, 1969, p. 18) Many scholars believed this theory and set out with the assumption that some type of UR-totemism has existed, and that its faint contours could be discerned behind the left-over totemic systems fragments of present day (ibid, 18). McLennans theory was criticised by Taylor (1899) who discarded the confusion of Totemism with simple worship of animals and plants, and viewed Totemism as a relationship between one type of animal and a clan but he did argue with the idea that totems were the basis of religion. Franz Boas (1916) research was based on North West American Indians and he found a society employing a visual form of Totemism in the form of totem poles. The totem pole was made up of mystical characters from the tribes ancestral past. Item were chosen from nature and used for cultural purposes. Totem poles functioned as an emblem of a clan or family, showing its unity and the rights which each clan were entitled to, and as a reminder of each clans link to a spirit ancestor. Totems were also a form of communication as tribes had no written language, so the totem poles were used to tell their stories, legends and events. Totems could not only be for clans they could also be individual however, only the most affluent tribe members could afford to have their own totem carved. Boas (1916) argued against a psychological or historical origin of totemism because its characters could be linked with individuals, and are in every social organisation, appearing in various cultural contexts and would not be possible to fit all totemtistic phenomena into one classification. The first complete work on totemism was conducted by Sir James Frazer (1919) who developed several theories in regard to the origin of totemism. The first theory suggested that men have totems because they expect benefits from them: The connection between a man and his totem is mutually beneficent; the totem protects the man, and the man shows his respect for the totem in various ways, by not killing it if it be an animal, and not cutting or gathering it if it be a plant (Frazer, 1887, p. 3) His second theory was that totemism was a system of magic intended to provide a supply of food for someone else (Hopkins, 1918, p. 153), this was disregarded in place his final theory which was more radical than the others and based on the fact that: Some savages believe their offspring comes not from intercourse between man and woman, but from the spirits of animals or quasi-animals seen by the woman or from the food she eats. They think that the spirits which thus become their children are really the animals they have seen or whose flesh they have eaten before conceiving (ibid, p. 153) This is what Frazer called the conceptional theory. Totemism at this point had come under attack from American anthropologist Goldenweiser (1910) who began by listing five key characteristics believed to be symptomatic of totemism, an exogamous clan ( people marry outside of their own social group), the name of the clan derived from the totem, a religious attitude toward the totem; as a friend or brother or protector, taboos or restrictions against the killing and eating of the totem, a belief in the decent from the totem (ibid, p. 182-83). Goldenweiser (1910) concluded that: Each of these traits..displays more or less a striking independence in its distribution; and most of them can be shown to be widely-spread ethnic phenomena, diverse in origin not necessarily coordinated in development, and displaying a rich variability of psychological make-up (ibid, p.266) Although not willing to give up the idea totally he proposed an alternative definition of totemism in terms of the association between definite social units and objects and symbols of emotional value (ibid, p. 275). Lowie (2009) was more radical arguing that totemism did not exist and for all intense and purpose was an invention of anthropologists. Durkheim in his book The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1915) presented the most influential interpretation of religion from a functionalist perspective stating society was the soul of religion and was the foundation of all religious beliefs. Durkheim (1961) said all societies divide the world into two categories: the sacred and the profane. Religion is centred on this division; it is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, things which are set apart and forbidden (Haralambos, 2001, p. 432). Thus to comprehend the role of religion in society, the connection concerning sacred symbols and what they signify must be determined. Durkheim used the religion of Australian aborigines in order to explain his theory. Durkheim referred to their religion as totemism stating it was the most basic and simplest form of religion. Aboriginal civilisations were divided into numerous clans each having duties and obligations towards their members, one of which is exogamy, where members are not allowed to marry within their clan. Each clan has a totem usually that of an animal or plant which is the emblem of the clan, a sign where each clan can distinguish itself from the others. The totem is the most sacred object in aborigine ritual. The totem is the outward and visible form of the totemic principle of god (ibid, p. 432). Durkheim argued if the totem is the symbol of god and society, therefore society and god are one. So people who are worshipping god are in fact worshipping society therefore, society is the real object of religious worship. Sacred things are considered superior in dignity and power to the profane and part icularly to man, thus, in relation to sacred things individuals are inferior and dependent (p.432). Durkheim said primitive man came to view society as something sacred because he is totally dependent on it. Furthermore, Durkheim argued the reason why society invents a sacred symbol like a totem is because it is easier for a person to visualise and direct his feelings of awe toward a symbol than towards so complex a thing as a clan (ibid, p.433). Durkheim believed in the collective conscience a set of shared values and moral beliefs, religion reinforces the collective conscience. The worship of society strengthens the values and moral beliefs that form the basis of social life. However, Goldenweiser (1910) said: The appearance of Durkheims brilliant but unconvincing treatise on religion brings home the fact that one of the phases of socio-religious thought, namely the problem of totemism, remains as replete with vagueness and misunderstanding as ever (ibid, p.288) Boas (1916) aiming at Durkheim as much as Frazer, denied that cultural phenomena could be bought together into a unity (LÃ ©vi-Strauss, 1969, p. 79). British anthropologists were less ready to give up on the concept of totemism. Malinowski (1925) gives an uncomplicated analysis of totemism relating to the function it has in a given society. Totemism plays a significant role in the ordering and control of nature by man (ibid, p. 22-23). The kind of mans attention in the totemic species shows also the kind of belief and cult to be there expected. Since it is the desire to control the species, dangerous, useful or edible, this desire must lead to a belief in special power over the species, affinity with it, a common essence between man and beast or plant (Malinowski, 1954, p. 45). Totemism as a style of social organisation maintains the status quo in society while as the same time serving as mans interests in a much deeper way: From the survival point of view, it is vital that mans interest in the practically indispensable species should never abate, that his belief in his capacity to control them should give him strength and endurance in his pursuits and stimulate his observations and knowledge of the habits and natures of animals and plants (ibid, p. 46) A criticism of Malinowski is he is guilty of operating entirely within the world of nature and his theory leaves us to explain why totemism, if it responds to human needs is not universal (Leach, 1969, p. 130). Evans-Pritchard (1951) said, Malinowskis theoretical conclusions are no more than descriptions in more abstract language (p.95). Radcliffe- Brown (1929) explored totemism from a structural functionalist perspective; he did not attempt to understand totemism in terms of beliefs, but as a collection of practices that serve to uphold the solidarity and equilibrium of the social group. Radcliffe- Brown described totemism as that circumstance whereupon: Society is divided into groups and there is a special relation between each group and one or more classes of objects that are usually natural species of animals and plants but may occasionally be artificial objects or parts of an animal (Radcliffe-Brown 1965, p. 117). Radcliffe-Brown (1965) said totemic objects are objects which have been accorded ritual value (ibid, p. 123) and he argues that: Any object or event which has important effects upon the well-being (material or spiritual) of a society, or anything which stands for or represents any such object or event, tends to become an object of the ritual attitude (Radcliffe-Brown 1965, p. 129). Here, Radcliffe-Brown comes really near to the utilitarian theories offered by Frazer and Malinowski however; this hypothesis does little to the general understanding of why particular plants and animal species have such a high ritual significance. In a further essay Radcliffe-Brown (1956) highlighted the significance of the conclusions about the relations between humans and animals. Moreover, after listening and examining stories told about animals by Australian aborigines, Radcliffe-Brown concluded they had one theme, and added the resemblances and differences of animal species are translated into terms of friendship and conflict, solidarity and opposition Radcliffe-Brown, 1958, p. 116). Overall concluding, the world of animal life is represented in terms of social relations similar to those of human society (Radcliffe-Brown, 1958, p.116). Radcliffe-Brown proposed the central terms in his version of totemism are opposition and integration adding Totemism stopped being a type of rel igion but was instead a mode of thought where nature had become an object of contemplation for the expression of socio-cultural differences (Tremlett, 2008, p.47). Radcliffe-browns previous idea that objects become totems because they are of ritual interest to society can be turned around: why are they not of ritual interest because they have been designated as totems? (ibid, p.130). Questions have been asked about the integrity of his studies because some anthropologists have accused him of appropriating other peoples research and passing it off as his own. The Australian anthropologist Elkin (1933) said there are many forms of totemism in Australia specifically: Individual, sex, moiety, section, subsection, matrilineal and patrilineal social clans, localised cult clan and dream-totemism. Elkin denied the unity of totemism but sought to preserve its reality on the condition that he might trace it back to a multiplicity of types he stated there is no longer one totemism but many totemisms, each in itself a single irreducible whole (p.113). Elkin (1933) denied the unity in totemism as if he thought it possible to preserve the reality of totemism on condition that it be reduced to a multiplicity of heterogeneous forms (Levi-Strauss, 1969, p. 35). For Elkin (1933) there is no longer one totemism but many totemisms, each in itself a single complex whole. LÃ ©vi-Strauss (1962a) says Elkin instead of helping to slay the hydra (of totemism) has dismembered it and made peace with the bits (ibid, p.66). Evans Pritchard in his book on Nuer religion (1956) regarded totemism as a symbolic formulation of intellectually constructed relationships, (Strauss, 1962. p. 27). He wanted to comprehend totemism in terms of extensive Nuer Beliefs about Kwoth which stands for God or Spirit; there were two manifestations of spirit, higher and lower, with the totemic spirit being the spirit of the below. Evans Pritchard noted that Nuer totems were not symbols of linages, because some linages had none and other linages shared the same totem but did not otherwise acknowledge kinship with each-other. Nor did the totems signify Spirit as such, but rather the connection between God and a specific linage. So, such a study fixed totemism within the religious beliefs and practices of a particular society. Levi-Strauss was very critical of the reality of totemism for him the totemic illusion is the product of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century effort by scientists to relegate the primitive outside the realm of culture (Leach, 1962, p. 127) because they wanted to protect the Victorian world-view by maintaining the Christian distinction between man and nature, thus, by failing to recognise the similarities between Western and primitive codes, scholars created false taxonomies and blurred the universal logic behind all so-called totemic phenomena (ibid, p. 127). Levi-Strauss was inspired by Radcliffe-Brown, whose analyses he attempted to expand upon. LÃ ©vi-Strauss was the leading academic in contemporary structuralism believing human minds have certain universal characteristics which originate in the common feature of the homo-sapiens brain (Haralambos, 2001, p. 910). These common mental structures lead people everywhere to think similarly regardless of their society or cul tural background. LÃ ©vi-Strauss developed a system to show the abstract divisions that he saw in totemism as a phenomenon in human nature. His system was implemented in a table of oppositions or mutual relationships. The basic relationship was between the binary opposites such as nature and culture. On one side there were in nature certain realities such as species of animal, or plants and specific animals and plants. On the other side, there was in culture various groups and individuals who identify themselves with particular species or with specific animal and plants. LÃ ©vi-Strauss (1962a) noticed four types of relationship between nature and culture within totemism: A species of animal or plant identified with a certain group; a species identified with an individual and finally a particular animal or plant identified with a group of animal or plant identified with an individual, a particular animal or plant (p.18). LÃ ©vi-Strauss (1969) stated each of these four groupings correspond to the phenomena that are to be seen in one people to another (ibid. 84). For the first grouping he suggested the Australians, for whom natural entities are linked with cultural groups (p.84); the second grouping was the individual totemism of North American Indians where an individual is linked with a species of nature (p.84). The third grouping the Mota people from the Bank Irelands of Melanesia named: a child is thought to be the incarnation of a specific animal, plant or creature which was found and eaten by the mother when she first found out she was pregnant(p.84). The final groupings were from Polynesia or Africa where fixed individual animals formed the groups support and worshbluefrost13ip (p.84). In conclusion LÃ ©vi-Strauss stated the difference between the classes of man and animal serves as the conceptual basis for social differences. Thus, for LÃ ©vi-Strauss totemism is an illusion and a logic that classifies- a post hoc explanation in which the structure of social relations is projected onto the natural phenomena, not taken from it. In conclusion, totemism is a belief system where the traits in the social organisation of people are believed to have kinship or a mystical relationship with a spirit-being such as an animal or plant which serves as the group or individuals emblem or symbol. As anthropology tries to understand different cultures and provides knowledge about cultural variation in the world through details studies anthropologist would find totemism an interesting topic which has been proved by the number of studies which have been discussed. The first study on totemism was undertaken my McLennan in (1889) who explored the origin of totemism. Boas (1916) studied American Indians and their totem poles, concluding the totem poles functioned as the emblem of the clan showing unity and the rights each clan was entitled to. Frazer (1919) gave the first comprehensive work on totemism; he came up with three theories the final of which saw the origin of totemism as an interpretation of the conception and birth of children a belief he called conceptionalism. Durkheim (1915) hoped to discover a pure religion in a very ancient form and claimed to see the origin of religion in totemism. In 1925 Malinowski explored totemism as a function in a given society. Radcliffe-Brown (1929) researched from a structural functionalist perspective explored how totemism upheld the solidarity of the social group. Elkin (1933) explored numerous forms of totemism. Evans-Pritchard (1956) explored Nuer religion and the symbolic nature of totemism. The final theory discussed on totemism was by Levi-Strauss (1962a/1969) who explored totemism from a structuralist perspective. He gave the most incisive critique of totemism by denying its reality stating totemism is an illusion. Investigations of totemism has decline in recent times, those which have been undertaken have moved away from its universality toward explorations which consider totem structures in a more precise context.